Monday, March 21, 2016

Sorry to disappoint, but there is still such a thing as right and wrong | Really Random Writings

Ever had your father tell you he would be more than happy to come visit you in jail? I doubt most millennials have. But I can remember clear as day when my dad sat me down and talked about his oldest son (that's me) becoming a jailbird. And considering how my father was raised, one probably shouldn't be too surprised.

My father was raised by one of the most hard-nosed men still alive. At the height of his career, my grandfather was the second-highest ranking naval intelligence officer in the United States of America. Let's just say that one doesn't rise to that position by being Mr. Lackadaisical.


When my dad was young, he heard about some of the teens his age "borrowing" their parent's car in the middle of the night, thinking it would be fun to go joyriding. And it was for them. So it was easy to brag to their peers at school how they got away with swiping the car and dragging main without permission. Seeing other having fun getting away with these kinds of shenanigans but also aware of the strict nature of the man that he called "father," Dad asked Grandpa what the consequences would be if he took the car out for a spin in the middle of the night.

Without missing a beat, my grandfather said "I'd call the police."

"Really?"

Grandpa leaned in close, raised his hand, and snapped his fingers. "That fast."

Now, part of the reason that Grandpa got as far as he did in life was because of the support of a strong woman at his side. Like Grandpa, Grandma wasn't much for putting up with any monkeyshines either. At her funeral a few years ago, my dad said something while delivering the eulogy that really stuck with me. He said "My mother didn't defend her children's behavior; she defended what was right. Therefore, her children had better be doing what is right."


Between Grandma and Grandpa's example, I think my dad learned this lesson pretty well. I lived under what most these days would consider to be some pretty strict, even harsh, rules while living in my parent's household. All of that changed when I was 18. I can still remember when Dad sat me down and took the leash off. He said something along the following lines: "Son, you are 18 now. Mom and I have spent that many years trying to teach you what is right, trying to make you into a man. And we've had a lot of rules for you to follow. I will be the first to admit that we have been very strict with you. But that ends now. The leash is off. Welcome to being an adult."

He then leaned in close and said "So if you go out, screw up your life and wind up in jail, I'll be more than happy to come and visit you."

It was what he didn't say there that was important. He didn't have to say that he wouldn't bail me out. I already knew that. If I did something to end up in jail, it was my fault and there would be no one to bail me out because of something I did. 


My parents raised me in such a way that I knew what was right, and if I suffered the consequences of my poor choices, I had no one to blame except myself. Because I knew better. 
I am responsible for accepting the consequences of my own decisions. My parents could protect me from a lot of things in this world; but they cannot protect me from myself. I guess my parent's philosophy may be a little different from the world's current train of thought. Their mindset was (and still is) that it wasn't their job to protect us kids from the world; it was their job to teach us to protect ourselves. They realized that someday mommy and daddy wouldn't be there to make choices for me. So they prepared me for that by expecting me to live according to what I knew to be right before they took the leash off. That does not mean my folks were uncaring, or threw us out into the world unprepared. On the contrary. In teaching us right from wrong, my parents gave us the best possible preparation to function out in the "real world." That's not to say I didn't make a few good-sized mistakes here and there, but still managed to make it to this point in life without any jail time. 


Now, switching gears just a little, I kind of like the Transformers movie. Giant alien robots coming to earth creating an epic struggle for mankind is a pretty cool plot. There is, however, something that seriously bugs me about that film. For those not familiar with the movie, I'll give you a quick synopsis.

The main character, Sam, is in possession of an artifact, something belonging to his great-grandfather, detailing the location of a powerful tool used by an alien robots race. These robots (both the good ones and the bad ones) find out that the artifact and the tool are on earth and come to find both. The good robots befriend Sam, who joins up in the fight to save humanity against the bad robots that want to destroy the earth with the powerful alien tool. An ultra-super-secret US government agency tasked with monitoring the alien situation gets involved in the fiasco as well. The movie ends after an epic battle stretching from the Hoover Dam to L.A., with the good guys saving humanity. As a side issue, a gorgeous girl from Sam's high school who wouldn't give him the time of the day finally notices him when she finds out that he is involved in cool alien robots.

At one part where Sam and the girl get caught with the robots by the secret agent government dude that nobody is supposed to like, said agent mentions that the girl has a juvenile record. She admits to Sam that the cars that she used to help her dad fix weren't exactly their own cars, if you catch her drift. If you don't, that means that her dad stole the cars. And you can tell that Sam is a little shocked at this revelation. Here in his mind was the perfect girl, and whoops; she had a record. (It does cause one to wonder how some secret government agent responsible for alien robot management for the most powerful country on earth knows off the top of his head that the sort-of girlfriend of a teenage boy they caught with the robots has a juvie record, but that is beside the point.)

A little bit later she calls Sam out, presumably for judging her (though he didn't even mention anything about the incident) while he lives a "perfect little life." With the lights bursting behind her, the camera down low pointing up at her, the background music/sounds just right, everything cinematographically necessary to make her look every bit the brave and rugged heroine, she says "Sam...I have a record because I wouldn't turn my dad in."

Cut. Print. Wrap. It's perfect.

And it bugs the living daylights out of me. The director turned her character into a hero for being willing to set aside such things as morals and defend her father's behavior, while simultaneously turning Sam into a jerk-face meanie for having the audacity to have the thought cross his mind that it is wrong to steal cars. By golly, if he is willing to think it is wrong to steal cars, he probably tortured kittens as a child!! If my mom hadn't taught me otherwise, I would probably be cussing him up one side and down the other for having the audacity to have morals!! And boy she sure showed him by then asking him what he had ever had to sacrifice in his "perfect little life." Gosh, it is a good thing she put him in his place.

Oh what a tangled web we weave. It is now good and glamorous and heroic and sacrificial and selfless and probably other virtuous-sounding words to defend someone else's behavior, whether or not said behavior is wrong. I mean, don't get me wrong; I was impressed she was willing to do that. Presumably because of love...? And only a judgmental, discriminatory, racist, sexist, self-righteous zealot and bigot who tortured kittens as a child who would dare even question covering up for someone else's misdeeds.


Hollywood remains unmatched in their ability to manipulate the masses into extolling behavior that is deplorable. Though, in all fairness, today's mainstream media seems to have picked up a few pointers.


I guess what I'm trying to say is when did it become okay to defend someone else's wrongful behavior? It would seem that it is now not only appropriate, but wildly acceptable in our culture to hold everyone but the individual (more often called the victim nowadays) accountable for the individual's actions. It seems to be widely accepable to put what is right in the backseat in order to excuse an individual's behavior.

When did it become okay for the masses to remove responsibility from the individual? 
How did we get to the point in society where one standing up for what they believe to be right is portrayed as a self-righteous bigot? That is not to say that bigotry and the self-righteousness don't exist; I'd be lying if I said it didn't. However, we tear down virtue to uphold atrocities if the "victim's" political, sexual, racial, personal or any other such characteristics and creeds are aligned with our own. I think this point is well illustrated by the following image:






I am legitimately concerned that in today's day and age, this mentality extends far beyond the classroom. 

When you teach someone that they are above what is right, that the rules don't apply to them, that someone else will bail them out of any sticky situation they get themselves in, you are not helping them. You are lying to them. 


Parents, loving your children involves much more than telling them yes every time they make a request. Or demand. Or throw a temper tantrum. It also means not defending their behavior when they do something wrong. 
When a parent excuses their child's wrongful behavior because they "love" their child, the parents are not only fooling themselves, but severely damaging their child. Truly loving your children requires, at times, that you say no. Truly loving your children requires that they be punished for doing wrong. They may look at you as the big, bad, meanie parent in the moment. Have the courage to stand up for what is right rather than what is easy, and shallowly presents itself as "love."

Let me be absolutely clear; 
I'm not advocating child abuse here. That is, and always will be, wrong. But letting your child off scot-free can be just as damaging in the long run. If you don't teach them, the world will. And getting a spanking or a time-out is much more gentle than watching them end up behind bars. Or suffering the consequences of choices that you can't get them out of. Take the recent "affluenza" case that popped up when a parent took it too far in trying to remove the consequences from the teen responsible. 


I recently heard a story for the first time involving my brother, one of his "friends," and my father. Though I wasn't present for the event, I think it appropriately demonstrates what I am trying to say here. In a nutshell, Dad told Brother that he was not allowed to go to a certain party. Brother wasn't too happy, and neither was Friend. So, Friend took it upon himself to go up to Dad and pompously and presumptuously tell Dad off for saying no, insinuating that Dad was abusing his authority as a father figure in saying no.

As I listened to Brother and Dad recall the event from years previous, I was so proud of my brother when he said that he now not only realized why Dad had told him no, but appreciated that Dad cared enough to say no. He, and I, now realize that our parents loved us enough to say no when necessary.

There are those that will say that is a harsh viewpoint. But, as a wise man once told me, "It is not my job to protect my children from the world. It is my job to teach them to protect themselves." If you stand for what is right, your children will stand for what is right. If you stand for your child, your child will do whatever they want, regardless of what is right.


Our culture is currently engaged in the greatest cultural experiment of putting individuals above principles ever known to mankind. I personally believe it starts in the home. And we are suffering for it. While many decrying injustice in this day and age look to government for solutions to remedy the symptoms of such outrages, the very people viewing themselves as social heroes are indeed the very catalysts fueling and escalating these occurrences. 
Every time they make excuses for such an individual, hundreds of young, impressionable children receive the message that it is possible for them too to live above the rules. They learn that someone will step in and make excuses for them if they do something reprehensible. The snake-oil solutions provided by these perceived social warriors will never work because they are more interested in defending the behavior of those who wind up in trouble as the consequences of their own poor choices than they are in defending what is rightIs it any wonder that nearly 1 in 3 young people will be arrested by the age of 23?


Why then was Martin Luther King Jr. so effective? Because he was interested in what was right. And he didn't sink down to the level of wrongdoers in order to "right" that wrong. It was wrong to segregate the African-American population from society. It is wrong to judge or treat a person differently based on their skin color.  He recognized that was wrong, and he did something about it. And something tells me that he understood the old adage "two wrongs don't make a right."
He also realized it also wasn't right to go around destroying property and beating people when something you don't like occurs. And that is the difference between him and today's rabble-rousers. He didn't make excuses for the behavior of others. He didn't care about how the media portrayed him. He wasn't interested in money. He wasn't caught up in trying to be perceived as politically correct, and cared not for finding every possible offense imaginable and then whining, wailing, and gnashing his teeth at the world, demanding the situation be remedied. He was more interested in what was right than in possibly damaging someone's fragile mentality or frail ego. 

Our nation is not suffering from intolerance; it is suffering because of a collective willingness to excessively tolerate that which is wrong. Our culture is suffering because, in general, we refuse to stand up and say something is good or bad. O
r rather, it is our willingness to elevate people and their behaviors above the rules that is causing our culture to crumble in our midst. Political correctness has pushed truth right out of a second story window and spat on it to boot. We grab picket signs (physical or digital) and call the perpetrator (a.k.a someone who stands up and calls it what it is, and no, that was NOT a Donald Trump reference) horrible names way before we would even dare to question if the alleged victim shouldn't have been doing what they were doing.  In a day and age when political correctness dictates we never tell someone that what they are doing is wrong (unless of course they don't agree with us), it is more important than ever to put what is right ahead of what is politically correct. 


I believe that, like during the 60's and 70's culture of drugs and sex, our culture is in a serious dilemma. This time, the danger is much more subtle. Rather than a chemical or blatant moral threat, this new attitude of perceived morality, of defending people's behaviors no matter the reason will indeed lead America to a brave, new future.

Sunday, January 17, 2016

Dear People Who Think You Love Science | Really Random Writings

I love science. And when I say I love science, I'm not just talking about re-posting memes from an expletive-laden Facebook page. My dear mother says that the first three words I learned growing up were “Mom,” “Dad,” and “Paleontology.” I have wanted to be a scientist for pretty much my entire life. From the time I was young, paleontology, archaeology, marine biology, astronomy, anthropology, geology, botany, chemistry, and yes, even physics to a certain degree has fascinated me. I just graduated with a bachelor's degree in geology, and I've come to find over the years that the natural world is a never-ending wonder of continual discovery. So, let me make it perfectly clear before I get accused of being a hater; I think science is awesome.

So I hope I will be forgiven in saying that I am quite tired of science being hoisted up on every other person's petard as today's Holy Grail, the Final Say, the Unquestionable Absolute, the End of Any and All Arguments, a Slam-Dunk Finish. Possibly my least favorite sentences in English involve the following sentiments:

        #1 - "The Science is Settled," indicating that some scientist said this, so shut up and go away you uncivilized buffoon and/or science denier. If we held to the "Science is Settled" idea, Aether Theories, Spontaneous Generation, the Expanding Earth, and even Einstein's Static Universe may be today's norm.

        And #2 - "Well this study says..." indicating that since this study you found on the internet says using the fungus scraped from underneath your toenails in your breakfast smoothie on the full moon of every other odd month naturally reduces cooties, it must be the gospel truth. EUREKA!! Sweet, post it to Facebook, tell your friends, change their lives.

It isn't the science I'm going after. It is the perversion of science through the manner in which it is used, by scientists, politicians, and the general public. And I think it safe to say that all have misused science at some point. I'll admit, I myself am far from above reproach. Not too long ago, I posted a "science" meme online that made what I thought was a good point (I think it still is a good point, or at least a good laugh). I then realized that it used a biased one-liner that didn't fully explain anything to show how everyone who agreed with the opposing viewpoint was clueless. So I took it back down. Because that is not science. Oops.

Science is the human way of organizing the knowledge we have of the universe in which we live. Science is extraordinarily useful in explaining the universe in which we exist, and in making predictions. Science is the process by which we pursue knowledge, and is a constantly evolving body of ideas.

An extraordinarily important point to remember about science is that science is not out to prove an idea to be true. When testing a hypothesis, said hypothesis is attacked from all angles to prove it false. If scientists fail to falsify a hypothesis after rigorous testing, then the credibility of the proposition is elevated. So, l
et me repeat; science is not a tool used to prove something true. Those that use it as such do not understand the basic premise of science. Bias is so easily introduced into the equation when one is trying to prove something true. Science is used to determine what is not true, and over time, the range of possible truths is narrowed. Theoretical physicist Richard Feynman once said "I have approximate answers and possible beliefs and different degrees of uncertainty about different things, but I am not absolutely sure of anything." I'm not positive I agree 100% with everything he says there, but I like the sentiment he is trying to get across. 

However, science has "proven" over the years that violent video games don't cause aggression. Science has also "proven" that violent video games cause aggression. Science has recently "proven" cell phone radiation is killing bees, but it has also said that pesticides are the culprit. Studies have been used to show that homosexuality is genetic, while other studies say people are not born gay. Climate change has been proven, and proven to be a hoax. GMOs have been proven safe, and to be a health hazard. And these days, something doesn't even have to be "proven" before a bunch of word-toting pictures with snappy one-liners start flooding the internet.

Climate Change

        GMOs

 






Why is this?

The problem often isn't science. The problem is likely that we come to the discussion with preconceived notions and are unwilling to yield to one the values of a group that disagrees with the values of the group that we belong to. I think it best explained on a site I found while researching GMOs for a genetics class I was taking. The author states:


"The perception of risk is inescapably subjective, a matter of not just the facts, but how we feel about those facts. As pioneering risk perception psychologist Paul Slovic has said, risk is a feeling.” So societal arguments over risk issues like Golden Rice and GMOs, or guns or climate change or vaccines, are not mostly about the evidence, though we wield the facts as our weapons. They are mostly about how we feel, and our values, and which group’s values win, not what will objectively do the most people the most good. That’s a dumb and dangerous way to make public risk management decisions."


(The full article can be found here. Incidentally, the author, as near as I can tell, is advocating for holding those who disagree with science responsible for their disagreements. While I like what he said in the aforementioned paragraph, I am slightly uncomfortable with his proposition. First off, there is no law against being stupid. More importantly though, I tried to establish earlier that science is a constantly changing body of knowledge. What is "true" today may not be so true tomorrow.)


Lets be honest here; I think it safe to say that most people who accept anthropogenic climate change do so in part because it is one of the values of the Democrat party here in America. Most of those that are labeled as climate change "deniers" fall within the realm of the Republican Party. Because we associate ourselves with groups espousing those values, we hesitate to relinquish our grip on our views on certain issue because it is a value of the "enemy." HEAVEN FORBID WE ACTUALLY AGREE WITH THEM ON ANYTHING!!! So what do we do?


We zealously cherry-pick scientific facts (or we just ignore the science altogether, which at that point makes our opinion worse than useless) that support our arguments (ignoring the ones that we don't like) and attempt to bludgeon people who disagree with us into submission by using said "facts." Which gives the recipient of our facts the feeling that they are being clubbed. And rather than help them to see where they are wrong, that approach only makes them feel like you are attempting to bludgeon them, which you are, and under which circumstances they will fight, which gets everyone involved exactly nowhere. Except maybe a trip for blood-pressure medication. 
Focusing on the science, however, (hopefully) removes some of the heated emotions from the discussion, drawing our attention to the problem at hand.
And on those occasions when we actually do remember the science, we've taken to equating research with the gospel truth, and anyone who questions it obviously is a science-denying ignoramus blockhead that somehow miraculously retained the function to walk and breathe at the same time. 

Why?

My father is quite fond of saying, "There is a lot of junk research out there. I know, I've written some of it." When academia dictates that a professor publish research to make the university look good and bring in tons of money or get booted, I imagine the professor (not entirely their fault) will publish whatever needed to keep their job. It doesn't matter what is published; it just has to be published. I don't think I need to spell out the implications of this dangerous practice. 

Like science, I think research is great. How it is used, however, occasionally gives me pause. I hold many of the scientists I've been privileged to work with in the highest regard. The same can be said of their research. I am sure that not all who publish do so just for the sake of publishing. But I'd be lying if I said I never think it happens. What I am trying to communicate is the idea that research does not necessarily mean correct, true, honest, legitimate, or accurate. It means someone with a piece of paper qualifying them as educated studied and then wrote about something. Hopefully, proper procedures were followed to give an unbiased and correct conclusion at the end of said research. I find myself, however, increasingly wary of trusting "research" simply because it is labeled as research. 


One of my favorite TV shows of all time is Hogan's Heroes. The German Commandant, Colonel Klink, in an attempt to "prove" that German pilots were superior to American pilots, set up a test that heavily favored the German pilots (Season 2, Episode 1). After Colonel Hogan pointed out this small detail, Klink said "The aim of a research project, my dear Hogan, is not to discover new facts. We already know the Luftwaffe personnel are superior. Here we are merely furnishing scientific proof!" Starting out with a conclusion and then finding data to fit the circumstances isn't simply putting the cart before the donkey; its running the donkey over with the cart, and then arranging to blame it on your little brother. (Note: if you have run over a donkey and don't have a little brother to blame, let me know; I have three. I'll rent one out to you.)


Perhaps the most profound sentence I ever heard uttered concerning the outcome of scientific analysis was by a man who got his bachelors degree in geology, and then went to practice environmental law (Yes, he was a lawyer, and no, don't hold that against him. He was one of the most sensible of persons that I have ever met.) He said, and I quote, "You can always find a scientific opinion if you have enough money." He later went on to say "You can buy science." And to be brutally honest, it is true. Take today's Justice System. If one side has an "expert witness," implying that said witness has a special knowledge or proficiency in an area concerning the case, all the other side has to do is hire an "expert witness" with an opposing view. And for every expert witness there is an equal and opposite expert witness. The case is no longer about the facts, but about the appearance of credibility. It has become a grotesque intellectual "fashion" show. When that point is reached, concern for the truth has long since been chucked out the window.

I was discussing this topic with a colleague of mine from last summer. Heading up through Southeast Alaska on his way to retirement, this older co-worker of mine had spent his career working with ballistic missile computer systems for the US government. You might say he's a sort of rocket scientist. I was very intrigued when he brought up taking statistics in college. From the sound of it, he struggled mightily in this class until he came to this realization; he could make the numbers say whatever he wanted them to. He might have had to tweak how he was looking at problem or change the information around the numbers to lead the audience to a certain conclusion, he might have to use different numbers or methods of arriving to better numbers, or even evaluate the questions he did or didn't answer. But he learned to fit quantifiable data into any scenario. He was able to back up almost anything one way or another by engineering the data to fit the narrative. Sounds like it did wonders for his Stats grade too. Learn the scenario, and then get the "data" necessary to back up the situation. After that class, he came to the same realization that I have come to: You can make numbers say anything you want them to

And just to cover my own backside, I'm not going after math either. Math, if used properly, is undoubtedly one of the most important of skills most people will ever learn, and certainly one of the studies with the most influence on humanity.


So when academia comes out with the results of a study, and the possible examples are too numerous to list, there is something an intelligent person should consider before posting an article arguing their viewpoint to someone's post to show the idiot they are bludgeoning how terribly wrong they are. One should always ask "Where is the funding for this study coming from?" If the video game industry is funding studies about benefits of violent video games, they aren't giving researchers the money in the hopes of hearing that violent video games lead to aggressive behaviors. They are paying to hear that violent video games lead to improved grades, college graduates, a good job, stronger marriages, a pay raise, running for President, world peace, and...increased spatial skills...(Call me old-fashioned, but I hear playing outside is a great way to increase spatial skills.) Anyway, should a scientist/researcher even get in the same hemisphere that makes violent video games appear the slightest bit negative, they'd lose their funding faster than you could disconnect a game console.

Or, when the government is funding your studies on the effects of man's carbon production on global cooling whoops I mean global warming whoops I mean climate change whoops I mean global climate disruption whoops I mean whatever it is called today, they aren't paying to hear that the climate does it's own thing. The narrative is already decided. What they are paying (funding research) to hear that there is an immediate crisis on hand that requires their personal and immediate attention and needs hundreds of millions of taxpayer dollars to fund global warming mitigation measures (whatever in blue blazes that is supposed to mean), as well as pass a slew of legislation and new laws in order to combat plant food.

And guess who would lose their funding and credibility (and its anyone's guess as to which of those is more important to researchers) should they say climate change isn't the biggest and most immediate problem humanity has ever faced? Those funding these studies are paying to hear that there is an immediate crisis. And they'll not only keep paying, but pay more if they hear that "THE WORLD IS COMING TO AN END NEXT YEAR *(see "Al Gore") SO WE HAD BETTER RAISE MILLIONS OF DOLLARS RIGHT NOW TO DO SOMETHING!!!" What that something is, not even they know, and what happens with the money raised is anybody's guess. (Guess you now know how I feel about this issue.)


One should also ask what bias the person doing the research, writing the report, or repeating the research, holds. I don't mean to be beating a dead horse, but I recently read a pro-video game article by a mom/writer. Now, I'll be the first to admit that I enjoy video games. My roommates in college taught me to play Super Smash Bros, as well as Wii-U Mario Kart. And I loved it! I would play a couple of hours a week and it was a great de-stresser.

But when I read "As I write this post, my own 15-year-old is playing a 'Call of Duty' warfare game, while waiting for the latest version to arrive by mail," I am forced to wonder what bias this mother has. And in all fairness, she did state that she'd rather see her son riding his bike or playing basketball with his friends as opposed to chatting on his headset.

However, does she not have an emotional stake in this? Can her view of video games be affected by her love for her son, and by logical extension, his love for video games? I imagine it would be much less difficult to be proud of your son's accomplishments if you perceived that benefits such as enhanced creativity, increased ability to solve problems, and promoted social connectedness were coming out of his sitting down in front of a console wiggling his fingers. 

So when someone uses the phrase "Well, research says..." to show me why the buffoon to which they are speaking (that's me) has the mental capacity of a peanut, I immediately become interested in the research said person starts spouting. I want to know who did the research. I want to know the methodology behind research. I want to see the numbers backing up their claim, and how they arrived at those numbers. I want to know what questions they did and didn't answer and why. I want to know who funded the research. I want to see if the author mixed interpretations with data. I want to know the researcher's political leanings, as well as a whole slew of other things.

Most of all, I want to talk about the science itself. Incidentally, I find it fascinating when I get myself into an online debate by leaving a comment on a scientifically hot topic, that people whose only method of recourse in debating science is insulting someone they disagree with come out of the woodwork. I guess it is easier to have a spine online. However, as soon as I start discussing the science, I never hear back from them. Without fail. Over a dozen individuals once slammed me as an idiot, intellectual whiner, political sheep, and science denier over a questioning comment I made. As soon as I explained my concerns with the science, everyone, and all their insults, mysteriously vanished. 


So...to get to the point of this whole thing:



Please stop using "science" only as a weapon to advance your agenda. To do so is outrageously inappropriate, diluting the incredible process of gathering and examining knowledge to the point of throwing something--which may be fact, conjecture, straight up falsehoods, who knows--around on some online pseudo-scientific bludgeon-people-who-don't-agree-with-you cesspool. To do so, you haven't proven that you are right and someone else is wrong. You have only succeeded in proving you really know nothing of science, research or statistical analysis.